Giants of the Faith - A Christian History Podcast
Giants of the Faith - A Christian History Podcast
Episode 79 - John Duns Scotus
Today's show is about one of the titans of medieval thought - John Duns Scotus. Scotus was one of the most influential scholastics - right behind Thomas Aquinas. In this episode I'm going to go off into the weeds a bit to explain some of the details of the medieval school of thought known as Scholasticism and other topics. Hopefully you find the side-trips helpful.
https://whytheology.wordpress.com/2012/10/24/church-history-minute-john-duns-scotus/
https://iep.utm.edu/john-duns-scotus/
Hello, and welcome to episode 79 of the Giants of the Faith podcast. This is the podcast where we examine the lives of influential Christians from the last 2,000 years. I'm your host, Robert Daniels. Today's show is about one of the titans of medieval thought - John Duns Scotus. Scotus was one of the most influential scholastics - right behind Thomas Aquinas. In this episode I'm going to go off into the weeds a bit to explain some of the details of the medieval school of thought known as Scholasticism and other topics. Hopefully you find the side-trips helpful.
John Duns Scotus was born in the late 13th century, around 1266, in Duns, a town in the Scottish Borders region. His exact birth date is not known. Much of his early life is a mystery, but here's what is known, or surmised:
Duns Scotus likely received his early education in Scotland. He probably studied at a local monastery school, where he would have been introduced to Latin grammar, rhetoric, and basic logic. At a young age, Duns Scotus joined the Franciscan order.
The medieval Franciscan order, officially known as the Order of Friars Minor (O.F.M.), was founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209. It quickly became one of the most influential religious orders in medieval Europe. Francis, inspired by his Christian faith and a desire for a life of simplicity and poverty, renounced his wealth and established a religious community dedicated to living according to the Gospel.
Francis formulated a simple rule for his followers, emphasizing poverty, humility, and service to others. The Franciscans lived a life of radical poverty, relying on the generosity of others for their sustenance. They also emphasized itinerant preaching, caring for the poor and sick, and a close connection with nature. The Franciscan order grew rapidly, attracting many followers who were inspired by Francis's example of humility and devotion. By the end of the 13th century, there were Franciscan communities throughout Europe and beyond. They played a significant role in the religious and social life of medieval society, especially in urban centers.
As the order expanded, it experienced internal divisions over how strictly to adhere to the rule of poverty. The Franciscans became divided into different branches, including the Conventual Franciscans and the Observant Franciscans. The latter, also known as the "Spiritual Franciscans," advocated for a stricter observance of poverty and were associated with reform movements within the order.
Despite their commitment to poverty, the Franciscans also made significant contributions to scholarship and education during the Middle Ages. Many Franciscans were scholars who engaged in theological, philosophical, and scientific pursuits. The Franciscan intellectual tradition produced notable figures such as Bonaventure, Alexander of Hales, and of course John Duns Scotus.
The Franciscans were active in missionary efforts, both within Europe and in regions beyond, including the Middle East and Africa. They played a key role in spreading Christianity to new territories and engaging with people of different cultures and religions. The order left a lasting impact on medieval society, not only through its religious and charitable activities but also through its intellectual and cultural contributions.
John Duns Scotus continued his education at the University of Oxford, where he studied theology and philosophy. Oxford was one of the leading academic centers of Europe at the time, and it provided him with a rigorous education in the scholastic tradition. During his time at Oxford, Duns Scotus would have been exposed to the intellectual ferment of the scholastic period. He would have encountered the works of influential thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, and William of Ockham, whose ideas would have a profound influence on his own philosophical and theological development.
The scholastic school of thought was a philosophical and theological movement that flourished in Western Europe from the 11th to the 17th centuries. It aimed to reconcile faith with reason, particularly by integrating Christian theology with classical philosophy, primarily the works of Aristotle. The giant of scholasticism was Thomas Aquinas who, Lord willing, we'll look at in a future episode.
As I mentioned, scholasticism sought to harmonize the truths of faith with the discoveries of reason. It aimed to demonstrate the compatibility between Christian doctrine and the rational inquiry of philosophy. Scholastics believed that reason and logic were essential tools for understanding the natural world and uncovering theological truths. They often employed rigorous logical methods, including dialectics and syllogistic reasoning, in their arguments.
Dialectics is a method of argumentation and logical inquiry that involves the exchange of propositions and counter-propositions in order to reach a conclusion. In scholasticism, dialectics was used to engage in philosophical debate, often with the aim of resolving disagreements or exploring complex topics. Dialectical inquiry typically involves a back-and-forth exchange of ideas between two or more parties. Each party presents arguments, objections, and counter-objections, leading to a deeper understanding of the topic under discussion.
For example, in a dialectical discussion about the existence of God, one party might argue for God's existence based on the concept of a first cause, while another party might object by raising the problem of evil. The discussion would continue with each side presenting further arguments and rebuttals until a conclusion is reached or an impasse is encountered.
The other logical method common in scholasticism is syllogistic reasoning which is a deductive form of logical argumentation that involves drawing conclusions from two premises, typically in the form of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Syllogistic reasoning is used to demonstrate the logical validity of an argument by showing how a conclusion logically follows from the premises.
A syllogism consists of three parts: the major premise, which states a general principle or rule, the minor premise, which applies the general principle to a specific case, and the conclusion, which follows logically from the premises.
Here's an example of a syllogism:
- Major Premise: All humans are mortal.
- Minor Premise: Socrates is a human.
- Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
While scholastics relied heavily on the works of Aristotle, they also drew on the writings of other ancient philosophers, such as Plato, and Islamic thinkers like Avicenna and Averroes. The works of these thinkers were seen as valuable resources for understanding the natural world and exploring theological questions. Medieval universities, particularly those in Paris, Oxford, and Bologna, served as hubs for scholastic inquiry. Professors and students engaged in debates, lectures, and the writing of commentaries on ancient texts, contributing to the development of scholastic thought.
Scholastics explored a wide range of topics, including metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, theology, and natural philosophy (what we now call science). They addressed questions about the nature of reality, the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, the problem of evil, and the relationship between faith and reason.
While there were common themes within scholasticism, there were also significant disagreements and debates among scholastic thinkers. Different schools of thought emerged, each with its own emphasis and approach to philosophical and theological questions. Overall, medieval scholasticism played a crucial role in shaping European intellectual life during the Middle Ages. Its methods of inquiry, reliance on reason, and integration of faith with philosophy laid the groundwork for much of Western thought in subsequent centuries.
Duns Scotus was ordained as a priest in the Roman Church on March 17, 1291 following the completion of his theological studies. His religious vocation was a central aspect of his life and work. He took a position at the prestigous University of Paris as a lecturer on Peter Lombard's "Sentences". We briefly discussed Sentences way back in the Martin Luther episodes. If you'll indulge, (insert eyeroll here) I'll take a minute to discuss Lombard's work in more detail.
Lombard's "Sentences" was one of the most influential theological works in the medieval Church. It was used primarily as a textbook for theological education and as a framework for organizing theological knowledge. It served as a foundational text for theological education in medieval universities. It was a standard part of the curriculum in theology faculties and was studied alongside the Bible and other theological works. By the time of the Reformation "Sentences" had almost replaced the Bible as the primary study tool. Students memorized and studied what Lombard said about the Bible but paid scant attention to the scriptures themselves.
Lombard's work provided a systematic presentation of Christian doctrine. He organized theological topics into four books, covering the doctrine of God, creation, Christ, and the sacraments. Each book was divided into distinct sections, addressing specific theological questions and issues. It was used by professors as a reference for teaching theology to students. Professors would lecture on Lombard's text, explaining its arguments, engaging with its ideas, and often providing additional commentary or clarification. Students and professors would engage with Lombard's arguments, raising questions, offering objections, and proposing alternative interpretations. This intellectual exchange contributed to the development of medieval scholasticism.
Lombard's work carried significant authority in theological disputations, which were formal debates held within universities. Students and scholars would often cite Lombard's "Sentences" as a source of authority to support their arguments during these disputations. If you are familiar with how many Jews treat Maimonides then you'll understand how the medieval scholastics regarded Lombard.
Duns Scotus' time in Paris was cut short when he backed Pope Boniface VIII against French King Philip IV in a dispute over the king's right to tax church property. And since this episode has been one of rabbit trails let's follow another one. Boniface issued a papal bull in 1296, called "Clericis Laicos," which prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to secular rulers without papal consent. This was part of a broader effort by the papacy to assert its authority over secular rulers and preserve the financial independence of the Church.
Philip faced significant financial difficulties due to his military campaigns and lavish spending. He needed to increase his revenue. He defied the pope's ban on taxing the clergy and continued to levy taxes on the French clergy. In response, Pope Boniface VIII issued another bull in 1297, "Etsi de statu," reaffirming the prohibition and threatening excommunication for those who disobeyed. The conflict escalated further when Philip began to assert his authority over the Church in France, including the appointment of bishops and the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs. He also sought to undermine the influence of the papacy within France.
In response Boniface issued another papal bull "Unam Sanctam" in 1302 asserting the supremacy of the papacy over secular authority and declaring that submission to the pope was necessary for salvation. This further exacerbated tensions with Philip. Things got so bad that in 1303, agents of the kings arrested Pope Boniface at his residence in Anagni, Italy, and subjected him to humiliation and mistreatment. Although Boniface was eventually released, he died shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the ordeal.
The conflict between pope and king highlighted the ongoing struggle between the papacy and secular rulers over authority and taxation. It also contributed to a broader decline in the prestige and power of the papacy during the late Middle Ages, paving the way for the Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism - which I'm tempted to go into but I'll spare you this time.
Anyway, Duns Scotus backed the Pope and was kicked out of France in 1302. He returned to Oxford where he taught but was back in Paris by the end of 1304. During his time in Oxford and Paris Duns Scotus developed his philosophy, which is complex and multifaceted and beyond the talents of your humble host to fully describe. But here are the high points.
One of Duns Scotus's key contributions is his doctrine of the univocity of being. He argued that being (or existence) applies in the same sense to both God and creatures, though God's being is infinitely greater. This idea contrasts with Thomas Aquinas's doctrine of analogy, which holds that being is predicated analogously of God and creatures. Basically, there is no difference between essence and existence to Duns Scotus.
Duns Scotus also introduced the concept of "haecceity," which refers to the individual essence or "thisness" of a thing. Haecceity distinguishes individual entities from one another, emphasizing their unique identities.
Duns Scotus emphasized the primacy of the will over the intellect, arguing that the will is the primary faculty through which humans make moral choices and achieve happiness. This emphasis on the will had significant implications for his moral philosophy and theology. Duns Scotus believed that the will is the faculty responsible for moral decision-making. He argued that humans have free will, which enables them to choose between various goods and pursue their own happiness. This freedom of the will is essential for moral responsibility and the attainment of virtue. He proposed a voluntarist view of metaphysics, which suggests that the will is more fundamental than the intellect in understanding reality. According to this view, God's will is the primary cause of the universe, and the divine will is not constrained by reason or necessity. He argued that God's will is free and self-determined.
Duns Scotus defended the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, the belief that the Virgin Mary was preserved from original sin from the moment of her conception. This was perhaps the most influential argument he made on the broader church. There had been much debate over Immaculate Conception and even Aquinas argued against it. How could Mary be without sin but still in need of a savior? Duns Scotus sought to find a satisfactory answer and thus devised the following argument: Mary was in need of redemption like all other human beings, but through the merits of Jesus' crucifixion, given in advance (which is the key point), she was conceived without the stain of original sin. He argued that God could have preserved Mary from sin without detracting from Christ's redemption. His argument isn't particularly persuasive to me but it became the official position of the church.
John Duns Scotus's commentary on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard is one of his most significant works. Like many medieval theologians, Duns Scotus wrote a commentary on the "Sentences" as part of his theological education and to demonstrate his understanding of key theological concepts. His commentary follows the structure of the "Sentences," which is divided into four books: God, Creation, Christ, and the Sacraments. Each book is further subdivided into distinct topics or questions, and Duns Scotus provides detailed analysis and commentary on each. In his commentary, Duns Scotus engages in scholastic theology, employing rigorous logical analysis and dialectical argumentation. He draws on the writings of earlier theologians, including Augustine, Anselm, and Aquinas, while also introducing his own original insights and arguments.
In his commentary, Duns Scotus addresses a wide range of theological topics, including the nature of God, the problem of universals, the relationship between faith and reason, the nature of human freedom, and the significance of Christ's redemption.
John Duns Scotus died unexpectedly and suddenly in Cologne on November 8, 1308. He was 41 or 42 years old. He had been dispatched to the Franciscan friary there by the head of his order. No cause of death has been established. In 1991 he was declared Venerable by Pope John Paul II and then beatified in 1993.
The Reformers, and particularly Martin Luther derided Duns Scotus and the other Scholastics. He made fun of their deviation from Biblical philosophy into more speculative areas. He dismissed the Scholastics as "some learned men that argued over how many angels can dance on the head of a pin." This dismissal of Duns Scotus continues into the modern era. Anytime you've used or heard the term "dunce", as in "dunce cap", it's a reference to the followers of John Duns Scotus.
I'm a Protestant so to me much of the scholarship that Duns Scotus completed is vanity at best and heresy at worst. But there is no denying the impact he had on the Roman Church, especially during the Middle Ages. In some ways, his philosophy served as a touchstone and a focal point for the Reformers to push back against Rome. At any rate, his impact cannot be denied.
Thanks very much for listening. Until next time, God bless.
https://whytheology.wordpress.com/2012/10/24/church-history-minute-john-duns-scotus/
https://iep.utm.edu/john-duns-scotus/